Plant taxonomy and nomenclature

For obvious reasons, scientists want to classify and sort organisms. This is a very complicated and difficult venture. Many synthetic aspects are used to find out the relationships among plant groups and individuals, such as morhphology, anatomy, embryology, palynology, caryology, or phytochemistry. A very important difference in comparison to inanimated objects is the fact, that due to their phylogenetic relationship, organisms have already a hierarchic principle of classification which is independent from the observer.
The rules for classification and nomenclature are documented in the „International Code of Botanical Nomenclature” (latest version: St. Louis Code).
Whenever you give a (preliminary or fancy) name to an organic object (e.g. a plant or a pollen or spore), you have created a taxon. The rank of this taxon within the taxonomic units below may be uncertain or unknown. Especially in palynology, we often make use of such taxa that are of uncertain taxonomic value (so-called „form-genera” if the botanical affiliation is not known) (Table 1.).

Examples for nomenclature in the web:
International Code of Botanical Nomenclature (St. Louis Code):
http://www.bgbm.fu-berlin.de/iapt/nomenclature/code/ /SaintLouis/0000St. Luistitle. htm
http://employees.csbsju.edu/ssaupe/biol308/naming.htm
The various results of taxonomic investigations allow the reconstruction of a pedigree of plants and the degree of relationship to each other:
Plant identification
Practical exercises in plant identification and a lecture will be given during the course. Descriptions and pictures of allergenic plants are prepared on the epi homepage: http://www.polleninfo.org (allergy info – plants). There are no pictures of pollen grains on these pages.

Examples for pictures of pollen grains in the web:
http://paldat.botanik.univie.ac.at/
http://www.alergen.info.pl/alergen/atlas-roslin/atlas_ _roslin.html
http://www.kv.geo.uu.se/pollen/quickpollen.html
http://perso.wanadoo.fr/pollens/frames.htm
http://www.aarrc.com/Pollens/Pollens_Pictures/pollens_ _pictures.html
http://www.geo.arizona.edu/palynology/pol_pix.html
http://www.geo.arizona.edu/palynology/polonweb.html
pollen database for beekeepers: http://www.apimo.dk/ /pollen.htm
Systematic of higher plants (± after TAKHTAJAN, 1973)
from: Sitte P, Ziegler H, Ehrendorfer F, Bresinsky A (1991)
Lehrbuch der Botanik für Hochschulen ('Strasburger'), 33 Aufl., G Fischer-Verlag Stuttgart, Jena, New York

(Families of aerobiological interest in bold letters)

Gymnospermae
1^st Subdivision: Coniferophytina
1^st Class: Ginkgoopsida (Ginkgo, Baiera †)
2^nd Class: Pinopsida
1^st subclass: Cordaitidae †
2^nd subclass: Pinidae (=Coniferae)
2.1. Order: Voltziales †
2.2. Order Pinales
Araucariaceae
Pinaceae: subfamilies:
Abietoideae
Laricioideae
Pinoideae
Taxodiaceae (Cryptomeria, Sequoia, Taxodium)
Cupressaceae (Cupressus, Juniperus, Thuja, Chamaecyparis)
Podocarpaceae
Cephalotaxaceae
3^rd subclass: Taxidae
Taxaceae (Taxus)
2^nd Subdivision: Cycadophytina
1^st Class: Lyginopteridopsida (=Pteridospermae)
1. Order: Lyginopteridales (=Cycadofilicales)
Lyginopteriaceae †
Medullosaceae †
Glossopteridaceae †
Peltaspermaceae †
2. Order: Cyaytoniales
Caytoniaceae †
2^nd Class: Cycadopsida
Order: Nilssoniales †
Order: Cycadales
Cycadaceae
Stangeriaceae
Zamiaceae
3^rd Class: Bennettiopsida †
subclass: Bennettitidae
Order: Bennettitales †
subclass: Pentoxylidae
Order: Pentoxylales †
4^th Class: Gnetopsida (=Chlamydospermae)
subclass: Welwitschiidae
Welwitschiaceae
subclass: Gnetidae
Gnetaceae
subclass: Ephedridae
Ephedraceae


Angiospermae (=Magnoliphytina)
1^st Class: Dicotyledonae (=Magnoliopsida)
1^st subclass: Magnoliidae
1.1. Super-Order: Magnolianae
1.1.1. Order: Magnoliales
Winteraceae
Degeneriaceae
Magnoliaceae
Annonaceae
Myristicaceae
1.1.2. Order: Aristolochiales
Aristolochiaceae
1.1.3. Order: Laurales
Austrobayleyaceae
Monimiaceae
Lauraceae
Chloranthaceae
1.1.4. Order: Piperales
Piperaceae
1.2. Super-Order: Nympheanae
1.2.1. Order: Nympheales
Cabombaceae
Nympheaceae
Ceratophyllaceae
1.2.2. Order: Nelumbonales
Nelumbonaceae
2^nd subclass: Ranunculidae
2.1 Super-Order: Illicianae
Illiciaceae
Schisandraceae
2.2 Super-Order: Ranunculanae
2.2.1. Order: Ranunculales
Ranunculaceae
Berberidaceae
2.2.2. Order: Papaverales
Papaveraceae
Fumariaceae


3^rd subclass: Caryophyllidae
3.1 Super-Order: Caryophyllales (=Centrospermae)
Caryophyllaceae
Molluginaceae
Phytolaccaceae
Aizoaceae
Cactaceae
Didieraceae
Portulaccaceae
Basellaceae
Nyctaginaceae
Chenopodiaceae
Amaranthaceae
3.2 Super-Order: Polygonales
Polygonaceae (Rumex)
3.3. Super-Order: Plumbaginales
Plumbaginaceae
4^th subclass: Hamamelididae
4.1 Super-Order: Trochodendrales
Cercidiphyllaceae
Eupteleaceae
4.2. Super-Order: Hamamelidanae
4.2.1. Order: Hamamelidales
Hamamelidaceae
Platanaceae (Platanus)
4.2.2 Order: Fagales
Fagaceae (Fagus, Quercus, Castanea, Nothofagus)
Betulaceae (Alnus, Betula)
Corylaceae (Corylus, Carpinus, Ostrya)
4.2.3. Order: Casuarinales (=Verticillatae)
Casuarinaceae (Casuarina)
4.3 Super-Order: Juglandanae
4.3.1. Order: Myricales
Myricaceae
4.3.2. Order: Juglandales
Juglandaceae
4.4. Super-Order: Urticales
Ulmaceae
Moraceae
Cannabaceae
Urticaceae (Urtica, Paritaria)


5^th subclass: Rosidae
5.1 Super-Order: Rosanae
5.1.1. Order: Saxifragales
Cunoniaceae
Grossulariaceae
Crassulaceae
Saxifragaceae
5.1.2 Order: Gunnerales (Gunnera)
5.1.3. Order: Rosales
Rosaceae Subfamilies:
Spiraeoideae (Spiraea)
Rosoideae (Potentilla, Rosa)
Maloideae (Crataegus, Malus, Sorbus...)
Prunoideae (Prunus)
5.1.4. Order: Podostemales
Podostemaceae
5.2. Super-Order: Fabanae
5.2.1. Order: Fabales (=Leguminosae)
Mimosaceae
Caesalpiniaceae
Fabaceae (=Papilionaceae) (Robinia....)
5.3. Super-Order: Proteanae
5.3.1. Order: Proteales
Proteaceae
5.4. Super-Order: Myrtanae
5.4.1. Order: Rhizophorales
Rhizophoraceae
5.4.2. Order: Myrtales
Sonneratiaceae
Myrtaceae (Eucalyptus, Myrtus)
Punicaceae
Melastomataceae
Onagraceae
Lythraceae
Trapaceae
5.4.3. Order: Haloragales (Myriophyllum)
5.5 Super-Order: Rutanae
5.5.1. Order: Rutales
Rutaceae
Anacardiaceae
Burseraceae
Simaroubaceae
5.5.2. Order: Sapindales
Sapindaceae
Hippocastanaceae (Aesculus)
Aceraceae (Acer)
Staphyleaceae
5.5.3. Order: Geraniales (=Gruinales)
Oxalidaceae
Linaceae
Erythroxylaceae
Zygophyllaceae
Geraniaceae
5.5.4 Order: Polygalales
Polygalaceae
5.6. Super-Order: Celastranae
5.6.1. Order: Celastrales
Celastraceae
5.6.2. Order: Rhamnales
Rhamnaceae
Vitaceae
5.6.3. Order: Santalales
Olacaceae
Santalaceae
Loranthaceae
Viscaceae
5.6.4. Order: Balanophorales
Balanophoraceae
Cynomoriaceae
5.6.5. Order: Rafflesiales
Hydnoraceae
Rafflesiaceae
5.7. Super-Order: Euphorbianae
5.7.1. Order: Euphorbiales (=Trioccae)
Buxaceae
Euphorbiaceae (Mercurialis)
5.7.2. Order: Thymelaeales
Thymelaeaceae
5.7.3. Order: Eleagnales
Eleagnaceae (Hippophaë, Eleagnus)
5.8. Super-Order: Aralianae
5.8.1. Order: Pittosporales
5.8.2. Order: Araliales
Araliaceae
Apiaceae (=Umbelliferae)
6^th subclass: Dilleniidae
6.1. Super-Order: Dillenianae
6.1.1. Order: Dilleniales
Dilleniaceae
Paeoniaceae
6.2. Super-Order: Theanae
6.2.1. Order: Theales (=Guttiferales)
Theaceae
Hypericaceae
Dipterocarpaceae
6.2.2. Order: Sarraceniales
Sarraceniaceae
6.2.3. Order: Nepenthales
6.2.4. Order: Droserales
Droseraceae
6.3. Super-Order: Violanae
6.3.1. Order: Violales
Flacourtiaceae
Violaceae
Passifloraceae
Caricaceae
Cistaceae (Cistus, Helianthemum)
Tamaricaceae (Tamarix)
6.3.2. Order: Capparales
Capparaceae
Brassicaceae
Resedaceae
6.3.3. Order: Tropaeolales
Tropaeolaceae
6.3.4. Order: Salicales
Salicaceae (Populus, Salix)
6.3.5. Order: Begoniales
Begoniaceae
6.3.6. Order: Cucurbitales
Cucurbitaceae
6.4. Super-Order: Malvanae
6.4.1. Order: Malvales (=Columniferae)
Tiliaceae (Tilia)
Bombacaceae
Sterculiaceae
Malvaceae
6.5. Super-Order: Primulanae
6.5.1. Order: Ebenales
Styracaceae
Ebenaceae
Sapotaceae
6.5.2. Order: Primulales
Theophrastaceae
Myrsinaceae
Primulaceae
6.6. Super-Order: Cornanae
6.6.1. Order: Cornales
Hydrangeaceae
Aquifoliaceae (ilex)
Cornaceae (Cornus)
Nyssaceae
6.6.2. Order: Ericales (=Bicornes)
Clethraceae
Ericaceae
Pyrolaceae
Monotropaceae


7^th subclass: Lamiidae
7.1. Super-Order: Gentiananae
7.1.1. Order: Dipsacales (=Rubiales p.p.)
Sambucaceae (Sambucus)
Caprifoliaceae
Adoxaceae
Valerianaceae
Dipsacaceae
7.1.2. Order: Oleales (=Ligustrales)
Oleaceae (olea, Ligustrum, Fraxinus...)
7.1.3. Order: Gentianales (=Contortae + Rubiales p.p.)
Loganaceae
Gentianaceae
Menyanthaceae
Apocynaceae
Asclepiadaceae
Rubiaceae (Galium)
7.2. Super-Order: Solananae (=Polemoniales + Solanaceae)
7.2.1. Order: Solanales
Solanaceae
Convolulaceae
Cuscutaceae
Polemoniaceae
7.2.2. Order: Boraginales
Hydrophyllaceae
Boraginaceae
7.3. Super-Order: Lamianae
7.3.1. Order: Scrophulariales
Scrophulariaceae
Globulariaceae
Orobanchaceae
Plantaginaceae (Plantago)
Bignoniaceae
Acanthaceae
Pedaliaceae
Gesneriaceae
Lentibulariaceae
7.3.2. Order: Hippuridales
Hippuridaceae
7.3.3. Order: Lamiales
Verbenaceae
Lamiaceae (Labiatae)
Callitrichaceae
8^th subclass: Asteridae (s.st.) (=Synandrae)
8.1. Super-Order: Asteranae
8.1.1. Order: Campanulales
Campanulaceae
Lobeliaceae
8.1.2. Order: Asterales
Asteraceae (=Compositae)
Asteroideae (=Tubuliflorae) (Artemisia, Ambrosia, Helianthus)
Cichorioideae (=Liguliflorae) (Cichorium, Taraxacum...)


2^nd class: Monocotyledonae (=Liliopsida)
1^st subclass: Alismatidae (=Helobiae)
1.1. Order: Alismatides
Butomaceae
Alismataceae
1.2. Order: Hydrocharitales
Hydrocharitaceae
1.3. Order: Najadales (=Zosterales)
Scheuchzeriaceae
Juncaginaceae (Triglochin)
Potamogetonaceae
Zosteraceae
Zannichelliaceae
Najadaceae
2^nd subclass: Liliidae
2.1. Super-Order: Lilianae
2.1.1. Order: Dioscoreales
Dioscoreaceae
Trilliaceae
Smilacaceae
2.1.2. Order: Asparagales
Convallariaceae
Asparagaceae
Dracaenaceae
Phormiaceae
Agavaceae
Asphodelaceae
Hyacinthaceae
Alliaceae
Amaryllidaceae
2.1.3. Order: Liliales
Melianthaceae
Liliaceae
Colchicaceae
Iridaceae
2.1.4. Order: Orchidales (=Gynandrae, =Microspermae)
Orchidaceae Subfamilies:
Apostasioideae
Cypripedioideae
Orchidoideae
2.2. Super-Order: Bromelianae
2.2.1. Order: Pontederiales
Pontederiaceae
2.2.2. Order: Bromeliales
Bromeliaceae
2.2.3. Order: Zingiberales (=Scitaminaeae)
Musaceae
Zingiberaceae
Cannaceae
Maranthaceae
2.3. Super-Order: Juncanae (Junciflorae, Cyperales)
2.3.1. Order: Juncales
Juncaceae (Juncus)
2.3.2. Order: Cyperales
Cyperaceae (Carex, Cyperus...)
2.3.3. Order: Typhales
Typhaceae (Sparganium, Typha)
2.4. Super-Order: Commelinanae (=Farinosae p.p.)
2.4.1. Order: Commelinales
Commelinaceae
Eriocaulaceae
2.4.2. Order: Poales (=Glumiflorae)
Poaceae (=Gramineae) subfamilies:
Bambusoideae (Bambusa)
Pooideae (=Festucoideae) (Lolium, Poa, Bromus, Festuca....)
Arundineae (Phragmites..)
Stipeae (Stipa)
Oryzoideae (Oryza)
Eragrostoideae (Cynodon,...)
Panicoideae (Panicum, Pennisetum, Setaria)
Andropogonoideae (Saccharum, Sorghum, Zea...)
3^rd subclass: Arecidae (=Spadiciflorae)
3.1. Super-Order: Arecanae
3.1.1. Order: Arecales (=Principes)
Arecaceae (=Palmae)
3.1.2. Order: Pandanales
Pandanaceae
3.2. Super-Order: Aranae
3.2.1. Order: Arales
Araceae
Lemnaceae

Selected examples of more taxonomic systems:
1. Cronquist A: The taxonomic significance of the structure of plant proteins: A classical taxonomist’s view. Brittonia 1976, 28: 1-27.
2. Dahlgren RMT: A revised system of classification of the angiosperms. Bot J Linnean Society, 1980, 80: 91-124.
3. Frohne D, Jensen U: Systematik des Pflanzenreichs. Stuttgart: G. Fischer Verlag, (3. Aufl.) 1985.

The 6^th European Course On Basic Aerobiology, Poznan, Poland
Siegfried Jäger